The towering mountain landscape, the suggestion of atmospheric depth, and even the small figures traveling through this landscape are borrowed from Guo Xi (approx. 1020–1090), a painter active at the Northern Song court a century or more before the likely date of this painting. The reasons for the persistence of this style are found in historical events. The capital of the Song dynasty was captured by the Jurchen people from the north in 1127; the Chinese then moved their capital to the south. Thus the Song dynasty is commonly divided by historians into the Northern Song (960–1127) and Southern Song (1127–1279) dynasties.

Artistic production did not stop in the north after the conquest. The new rulers established their own dynasty, the Jin, and supported the arts as had their Song predecessors. Since the Song imperial art collection had been seized during the conquest, painters at the Jin imperial court had more direct access to examples of earlier styles than did their Southern Song counterparts. As a result, these earlier styles remained in strong use in the north.

This Buddhist painting shows the bodhisattva of benevolence Samantabhadra, called Fugen in Japanese. As described in the Buddhist scripture the Lotus Sutra, Fugen is mounted on a six-tusked elephant. He makes the gesture of prayer with both  hands before his chest. In the Japanese tradition Fugen personifies the active aspects of the Buddha’s teachings: meditation and practice. He is paired with his counterpart, Manjushri (Japanese: Monju), as an attendant of Shakyamuni, the historical Buddha. While Fugen is often depicted on an elephant, Monju is shown riding on a lion. Worship of Fugen reached its height late in the Heian period (794–1185), a pessimistic time during which people feared an imminent decline in the power of the Buddha’s teachings. Many believed that Fugen would protect those teachings with all his power; he was also seen as an effective protector of women.

This painting, now mounted as a hanging scroll, was originally part of a long narrative handscroll. The scroll narrated the founding legend of Jin’oji Temple (now known as Konoji), its destruction, and eventual reconstruction. In this segment a monk named Konin searched for the abandoned holy site in a hilly locale near Osaka. From right to left, it shows Konin being led by a green bull he encounters toward the dilapidated temple. After meditating in the mountain shrine near a waterfall, Konin has a vision of a divine being who urges him to rebuild the temple.

Konin appears here four times in a single landscape setting. Each time he is identified by a small blue label. The device of repeating the central figure helps us follow his footsteps as he proceeds through the story. This particular section is notable for its excellent state of preservation and exceptionally rich detail.

This handscroll opens and closes with fantastic landscape elements: Threatening overhangs and mysterious caverns are shrouded in pockets of heavy mist and eerie lighting. In the middle sections are quieter panoramas of populated riverbanks. It is tempting to read into the landscape a response to the turbulent situation following the fall of Beijing to the Manchu in 1644. While there are no overt images of war, Fan Qi depicted a landscape of seemingly unstable and even chaotic forms.

Fan Qi was active in Nanjing, Jiangsu province, and was painting in the city well before its fall to the Manchu in 1644. A professional artist, Fan based his styles on his understanding of those of the Northern Song dynasty (960–1126). He strove for elegance, and his paintings have a rather dry quality.

The historical Buddha Shakyamuni lies down on his right side to pass into final Nirvana. Above him, funerary fires create brilliant rainbow displays. Equally miraculous is the monumental reliquary, the stupa, to the upper right. Shimmering with supernatural light, the stupa simultaneously contains the Buddha’s body and represents his mind. It architecturally transforms the Buddha’s apparent absence after death into his eternal virtual presence; under these conditions, the stupa is an anti-time machine. On the reverse of this thangka, the Buddha Shakyamuni has been infused into his painted image. The syllables om ah hum in the formal Lantsa script follow the line of his reclining body. They appear at the brow, throat, and heart of the image, respectively sealing the Buddha’s body, speech, and mind into the thangka. Two handprints belonging to the consecrating lama appear alongside the inscription

The third eye in the middle of the forehead of this male figure identifies him as the Hindu deity Shiva. His wife is Parvati (B66S3). Both these deities can be represented in supernatural forms with multiple arms, and both have violent and frightening forms as well. Here, however, they are shown in the guise of a graceful young man and woman. Before and after the period of these sculptures, Angkorian art usually emphasized the power and remoteness of the gods. In the late 900s, however, and continuing for several generations, gentleness and sensitivity were sometimes emphasized. Notice here the carefully calculated contrast of minutely textured clothing and jewelry with the expanses of smooth, soft skin.

Stories from the Indian Ramayana (Epic of Rama) have been familiar in Cambodia and other countries of Southeast Asia for well more than a thousand years. Here is a scene from the later part of the story. Sita, the beloved wife of the hero Rama, has been abducted by Ravana, the demon king of Lanka. Rama, together with his allies, the monkeys, attack Lanka to rescue her. During the ensuing struggle, Ravana’s brother Kumbhakarna (the largest figure) takes on the monkey warriors. They attack by the thousands, but for all their wrestling and biting and clawing they cannot overcome him. Kumbhakarna maims hundreds of monkeys and devours hundreds more. The carnage continues without resolution till Rama himself (possibly the figure at left with the head broken off) joins in and, using his most powerful weapons, is finally able to cut Kumbhakarna to pieces.

This relief would probably have been positioned over a door of a Hindu temple. The face and head of the central figure were entirely restored before this relief entered the museum’s collection. The restored area has been darkened to distinguish it from original areas.

Parvati, the wife of Shiva, holds in her left hand a now-broken figure of her child Skanda; her other child, the elephant-headed Ganesha, can be seen near her right foot. Beneath her lotus throne is the lion she customarily rides. Above her, elephants pour water over her in a gesture of homage.

The central figure in this painting is literally a “sky walker” (dakini). She is a powerful female spiritual guide who travels at will through the emptiness of space (shunyata)—the ultimate reality in Himalayan Buddhism. To overcome the terrifying and seductive aspects of worldly life, dakini teach visualization techniques that employ both fierce and sexual imagery. Since the conventional world typically censors
such imagery, Naro Dakini instead dwells and teaches in cemeteries.

Above Naro Dakini appear the two cosmic Buddhas Vajradhara and Vajradharma. In Buddhist thought, these two Buddhas authored the teachings that Naro Dakini transmits. Below Naro Dakini appear a series of guardians that protect practitioners of her teachings from harm. From left to right, they are the Dancing Skeletons (Chitipati), Great Time (Mahakala), and a long-life goddess (Tseringma).

The bull Nandi is the faithful mount of the Hindu deity Shiva. In southern India, a large sculpture of Nandi would usually be placed in front of the main sanctuary of a temple to Shiva. It would face toward the sanctuary, so that Nandi could gaze adoringly at the representation of his master enshrined there. Because of this orientation, worshippers entering the temple compound would approach the sculpture of Nandi from behind.

Here Shiva’s bull, which weighs 4,000 pounds, is depicted in a kneeling position and adorned with garlands, strings of bells, an elaborate blanket, and other decorations carved in the stone. In the temple, it would have been wreathed in real flowers and fabrics.